Seminar on
A Historical Study of Indian Trade and Commerce:
Changing policies from Antiquity to Modernity
ABSTRACTS
Ancient Indian Ships and Their Role in Indian Trade or Commerce—Prof. Alok Tripathi
Harappan Trade Routes with Special Reference to Haryana—Dr Banani Bhattacharyya
Commercial Trade – An Ancient Indian Approach—Prof. Bhaskarnath Bhattacharya
Socio-religious reflections of trade in Pali literature—Prof. Saswati Mutsuddy
Beyond Borders: Trade and Cultural Exchange in Indian Art—Dr Keka Banerjee Adhikari
India’s contribution to the world economy till 18th Century was more than 20%. India was famous as a prosperous country called the golden bird or sone ki chidia during the Pre-modern times. The prosperity of the country had caught the attention of the world at large. As a consequence, visitors from different parts of the world continuously poured in. The Europeans like the Dutch, French, Portuguese and the British came to India drawn by the prosperity and rich resources of India, a potentially profitable land for trade in its exquisite products. Though their initial intent was commercial, ultimately India became a British colony. All her wealth was sucked out.
Historically, India was famous not only for her wealth but was also known for her excellent contributions in the fields of science - technology, knowledge system and literature, religion and philosophy, art- architecture, trade and commerce, as well as an evolved system of governance testified by the Shanti Parva of Mahabharat, Arthashastra, Kamandak Nitisara etc. No wonder India attracted travellers, traders and seekers in quest of knowledge from across the globe from time immemorial. Famous for her strength in learning as well as richness, India was a desirable destination for people across the world. The situation changed with exploitative rule of the British. Digging into the past, one may wonder about the causes of India’s richness. We are faced with questions like: what made India rich and prosperous? Was it the hospitable ecosystem with congenial climate, fertile land with sufficient rainfall – a land yielding rich crops? Alternatively was it due to the socio-cultural environment or training the society received? Were the thinkers devised and inculcated a value system making every individual conscious towards one’s duties and social responsibilities? We need to look closely at the social organization that provided a world view to people leading to a meaningful, healthy and satisfactory life.
We know for certain that the land surrounded on three sides by oceans and high mountains on its northern side was blessed with rich resources. Endowed with mineral rich mountains, navigable perennial rivers which were ideal for communication and transportation made it an ideal place both for agriculture, trade and commerce. The congenial and peaceful environment was equally suitable for philosophical and spiritual growth as manifest in the composition of the Vedas, world’s earliest knowledge literature. Charged with highly philosophical and spiritually evolved ambiance, creativity was at peak. A class of literature, known as Dharma Shastra propagated and propounded rules-regulations and ideals conducive to satisfying and successful life. Success, it was propagated lay in overall multi-dimensional growth of personality. The secret of a potentially balanced life as per the ancient Indian world view lay in the system of Purusharthas, a four-fold goal of life: dharma, artha, kama and moksha. Dharma was morality. It provides the guide line to lead an ethical life. Dharma is the supreme guiding force that illuminates life, provides protection showing the way to success, peace and prosperity (dharmo shảsati shảsitah; dharmo rakshati rakshitah). However, the theory of Purushartha attributed equal importance to artha and kama. The emphasis of such a world view was on righteousness. For smooth and enjoyable life artha or wealth had to be generated. Agriculture was the mainstay of the economy. Creativity in craft was an asset in profitable trade. Specialization grew in diverse sectors materializing into the well-known Varna system based on the professional skill of individuals. People could choose their vocations as per their inclination, Thus the Varna system became an integral part of Indian social organization. Skilled and trained craftsmen produced finest products for exchange and trade. Since most ancient settlements were located on river-banks, riverine trade flourished from the very beginning. It may not be opportune to enter into in-depth discussion on this subject of Purusharthas and the role it played in nurturing an industrious community of vaishyas and setthins like Anatha Pindak who were not only known for their wealth generated through trade and commerce but also for their righteous demeanour contributing to the welfare of society. Needless to state here that the psycho-moral foundations of Indian culture nurtured and promoted a conducive environment for the success story of the ancient Indian economy.
The present deliberation is primarily focused on trade and commerce, which is the main theme of this seminar. Therefore, the present paper proposes to evaluate the status of economy, especially of trade and commerce at nodal points of cultural history of India with an archaeological perspective. The Indus Valley Civilization, now-a- days also referred to as Sindhu - Saraswati Civilization, is well-known for over land and maritime trade. There is countless evidence of Harappan presence in West Asia, Egypt, Gulf sites Trade with the Gulf countries like Oman is too well-known to warrant any details here. The Indian traders had established trade relations with China, South-East Asia and Africa. Seals- sealings terracotta, pottery, beads etc. pertaining to Harappan Civilization were found at sites along the Persian Gulf. Seals, depicting ocean-bound ships with covered cabins and birds at the top suggesting that the sailors of that age were well conversant with nuances of shipping used in maritime trade. Lothal was the most well-known port-town of that period. Makaran coast was also a port town of Harappan period. After the decline of the Harappa Civilization, the cultural foci shifted towards the Ganga Plain irrigated by a network of perennial rivers. During the first millennium BCE, we witness the on-set of the process of urbanization manifested in the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) and the succeeding Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) cultures. The first cities of the Ganga Plain emerged in the 6th-5th BCE during the time of Buddha. Backed by political organization, the early cities were commercial centres with flourishing techno-cultural life. The Jatakas are full of anecdotes on riverine as well as maritime trade. The popularity of riverine trade was such that scenes of traders on the high sea are depicted on the panels of stupas at Sanchi Bharhut and Amaravati. The tradition continued in the centuries that followed. These evidence will be examined here in some detail.
Archaeological evidence in the form of small finds are valuable in affirming contacts between different regions. A critical study of small finds like beads, pottery and terracotta, coins, seals, as well as agricultural crops and raw materials utilized in manufacturing of artifacts, all provide insights into inter-regional or intra-regional interactions which flourished within distant regions at different cultural periods. The occurrence of a small number of NBPW sherds (numbering 20-21) at Taxila, or dispersal of a special variety of beads found at important Early Historic sites corroborate cultural contacts between places. Roman trade with southern ports is a well -documented fact seen in occurrences of amphora or rouletted and Arentine wares from the 1st century CE onwards. Interactions with Central Asia were at its peak during the Kusana Period. India had close interactions– cultural as well as commercial– with South-east Asia. The Gupta Period, said to be the golden period of Indian history, is known for its affluence and close diplomatic and commercial ties with the outside world.
Ship building was a developed technique in India from ancient times. Navigation, be it through the locations of stars (as Indian astronomical knowledge was highly advanced) or instruments devised by sailors who frequented the sea, was a forte of sea-farers. Discovery of India by Europeans, it is now believed, was made with the help of local sailors. There were famous port towns across India from Sind (Bambhore) in present day Pakistan through those in Central–Western parts of India (Gulf of Cambay, Broach) right up to the peninsular India (Coromandel, Cochin, Kaveripattanam etc.). These were busy ports engaged in commercial activities for ages. We will examine at length this evidence in the course of the present discussions. It will be equally interesting to see how much the psycho-moral injunctions impacted the philosophy of life of people expecting them to strike a balance placing dharma, artha and kama known as trivarga at equal footing.
According to the accepted modern definition, ‘economy’ is concerned with the production and distribution of goods and services and is distinct from politics and religion. However, this distinction is not reflected in early Sanskrit texts, such as the Arthaśāstra, which subordinates the quest for artha to the goal of dharma or ‘that which upholds the regulatory order of the universe’. This presentation draws on archaeological evidence to underscore the symbiotic relationship between trading activity and the cultural underpinnings and ritual uses of many of the items traded across the Indian Ocean, such as the conch shell and pearls, which were considered prized commodities.
In Hindu mythology the conch shell is one of the fourteen treasures that emerged from the churning of the milky ocean by the gods and the demons who used the Naga king Vasuki as the churning rod in search of the elixir of immortality. The story is prominently sculpted on temple walls both in India and Southeast Asia from the 6th and 7th century onward underscoring the conch as a divine resource of the waters, which were themselves considered precious by the cultures of the Indian Ocean region.
The trade networks in pearls and conch shells underwent major transformations after European interventions and colonization in the Indian Ocean. With the emergence of new forms of worship and trade practices, trade in pearls acquired global proportions that changed the earlier economic networks and redefined the maritime heritage of the region.
The present study aims to investigate shipping lines operated between Sri Lanka which was then known as Ceylon and India during the Mid-Nineteenth century. Sri Lanka is in a nodal point in the East-West naval trade, and most of the Indian ports, especially those in the Coromandel coast were reached through ports of Sri Lanka in the mid Nineteenth Century. Three main ports of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Galle and Trincomalee were engaged in international trade and three more ports, Mannar, Negombo and Kankasanthurei were dealing with trade in South India. Bombay in the west and Calcutta in the east of India were two main ports that dealt with trade with Sri Lanka. Three main shipping Lines, the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O) which operated since 1842, Bombay Steam Navigation Company (BSNC ) which initiated in 1845 and the British India Steam Navigation Company (BI), which started in 1856, were prominent among Shipping Lines in the Indian ocean during this period. The operational system and management of these three competitive Shipping Lines and other minor Shipping Lines are investigated. The capacity of ships, their services on passenger transport, mail exchange and cargo handling are surveyed with changing perspectives of the technological, economic, and political background of the mid-nineteenth century. Marine laws, port regulations, financial situations, environmental hazards and epidemic risks which affected naval trade are considered in this research. Export and import items, their quantities, generated income, taxes and overall expenditure are expected to be recognised with this study. Government Administration reports, Trade Directories, Almanacs, and contemporary Newspapers are the principal sources of this research.
Keywords: Ceylon, Shipping Lines, Mid-Nineteenth Century, Indian Ocean, Naval trade
It is well-known that the Arabian Sea with its seasonal reversal in wind system is highly favourable to mercantile ventures with trading vessels moving along the coast or across the sea. Consequently, the western sea board of India was dotted with numerous ports which facilitated mobility across the sea. The western sea-board possesses many inlets, creeks, channels, estuaries and back-waters and was conducive to the formation of natural ports. There is an empirical relationship between maritime connectivity and port efficiency. The Persian Gulf played an important role in connecting the Arab and Persian shores to the Indian Ocean world from antiquity as it was oriented more towards the Indian Ocean rather than towards the territorial empires in the region. The Red Sea network was immensely active too, catering to ports both in the central and south west coast of the subcontinent. Through a few case studies this presentation would focus on certain trends and patterns over the years and the underlying processes that shaped the interaction between the ports of the western seaboard and the ports of the Persian Gulf as well as the Red Sea.
Long before highways were built, boats and ships were the machines to transport people, goods and ideas across the continents. India has a long nautical history having established maritime links for at least 5000 years conducting long distance maritime trade. Indian objects excavated across the sea and numerous foreign objects unearthed on Indian sites are the evidence of such maritime activities. These material evidence transported through trade and commerce are also evidence of skills of Indian mariners sailing across the sea, and their navigational and shipbuilding advancements. Long coastline with safe harbours and markets, favourable climatic conditions and advance maritime technology, availability of material and technical skills of Indians played an important role in development of trade and commerce since antiquity. This paper deals with archaeological evidence of ancient India ships which played a key role in trade and commerce through the ages.
Trade and commerce played a vital role in Ancient Tamilagam. The early Tamil classical literature described the Sangam Age people and their trading contacts with the Mediterranean world and Southeast Asia. Internal trade also flourished in the region with local networks of trade connecting different urban centres. Kanchipuram, one of the best early urban centres (nagareshukanchi) in the region during the Early Historical period has inter and intra trade contracts. The archaeological excavations and explorations at various sites conducted in various places in the region by the scholar further attesting. The region has also yielded imitation and imported artifacts confirming to the trading relations between the regions and overseas. Moreover, the technological skills and mass production centres from the region during the Early Historical period indicate the Cultural diffusion and expertise in technical knowledge. Interpretation of discovered antiquities related to the trade activities from Kanchipuram excavations is the subject matter for the present discussion.
Keywords- Ancient Tamilagam, Sangam Age, Trade & Commerce, Classical Literature.
The theme of trade/exchange, especially the phenomenon of external trade in luxury items and the spices alongside silk, cotton, gems, and ivory have featured conspicuously in major works of Early Indian History. Ever since the publication of E.H. Warmington’s major volume,1 the subject of Indo-Roman Trade was a mandatory inclusion in volumes on early Indian history, whether these were covering comprehensive histories of early India or focusing solely on economic history. Indeed, the later critique against the concept and theme2 also draws attention to its crucial significance in understanding early India’s strategic status in terms of material culture in the wider context of ancient world history. Notwithstanding the critical points, and even including some of the arguments raised in the controversy, I would like to argue for the necessity of exploring the evidence for diverse kinds of networks of exchange, within which I shall focus especially on a rather neglected aspect of commodity transmission in the given context. This involved the collection, and exchange of raw and extracted medicinal items including medicinal and aromatic plants, spices, forest products and minerals which could be tracked via extensive land and sea routes connecting India to the West (West Asia and the eastern Roman world) and eastern Asia (roughly between 1st century CE and 6th century CE). These exchange/collection networks, documented in texts and epigraphic records reflect upon the extensive connections built within India and beyond, with western and eastern Asia, supporting vital flows of organic and inorganic items and knowledge. The presentation will especially focus on the rare aspects of this network that remain unaddressed in major works of trade in the context of early Indian history.
1 Warmington, E. H. (1928). The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
2 See Gurukkal, Rajan, Rethinking Classical Indo-Roman Trade: Political Economy of Eastern Mediterranean Exchange Relations, Delhi, 2016; online edn, Oxford Academic, 21 Apr. 2016.
The Harappan or Indus-Sarasvati Civilization (c. 4000–1900 BCE) possessed an extensive and well-organized trade network that connected its urban centers across north-western South Asia and beyond. Haryana, located along the Ghaggar-Hakra (often identified with the Sarasvati) river system, occupied a strategically significant position in this network. This study is trying to explain the nature of Harappan trade routes in relation to Haryana, highlighting key archaeological sites, modes of transportation, and the role of the region as an inland trade corridor connecting the core Harappan zones with eastern, southern, and western regions.
arthāgamo nityam arogitā ca/ priyā ca bhāryā priyavādinī ca//
vaśyaś ca putro'rthakarī ca vidyā/ ṣaḍ jīvalokeṣu sukhāni rājan// 1
Undoubtedly this axiom announces the six reasons of happiness for a man or for a civilization as uttered by Viṣṇuśarmā in his Hitopadeśa, an ideal later compendium of the Vedas and the Vedic civilization. Though there are some other cultures simultaneously running in India, it is often said that Indian civilization is almost based on Vedic culture and equally governed by the Vedic rites and rituals. So, India becomes the land of Dharmakṣetra, being a cascade of different casts and creeds. Here the people of India practiced their own rites and rituals under the Vedic Culture. So, in this land of various casts and customs there should also have some different vision on this particular field of study of Commerce and Trade? What is the exact meaning of these two words Commerce and Trade? Actually, these two words are usually interrelated with each other. The English word Commerce comes from the Latin word commercium which means trade. It is a combined form of the prefix com meaning together and merx meaning merchandise or goods. Then the term literally signifies the act of bringing goods and people together for buying and selling. Now let us get the Sanskrit Indian word synonymous to Latin or English words. There are some words vyavasāya, vāṇijya. The said axiom indicates this process of merchandise with the word nityam arthāgamaḥ means a regular incoming system of monetary wealth in an uprising society and the process of earnings would be possible when there will be a sound system of commercial trade. So it is opined by the scholars that,
vāṇijye vasate lakṣmīḥ tadardhaṃ kr̥ṣikarmaṇi/
tadardhaṃ rājasevāyāṃ bhikṣāyāṃ naiva naiva ca//
Means Lakṣmī (Wealth) dwells in vāṇijya (trade/business), the half of this can be incurred from agriculture. Half of that half part of agriculture can be had from rājasevā (any type of official appointments) and nothing could be possible to earn from beggary (bhikṣā). Then, it was decided in the hoary past that incurring or saving a profuse storage of wealth could be possible only through commercial trade and so commercial trade becomes so important from that hoary past up to till date. Now here raises the question, when and how this commercial trading had been initiated in the hoary past of Indian civilization. Was it started in the age of Harappan civilization or was it initiated in the period Vedic civilization? Actually this question will encompass an enormous time period which is practically impossible to cope up in a single discussion.
So, this present paper intends to peep a glance on the situation and arrangement of Commercial Trade starting from the hoary past of Vedic civilization and its diverse convention.
1 Hitopadeśa – Prastāvikā – Sl. 20
2 Oft quoted Traditional Dictum
Pali is traditionally recognized as the language of the Buddha’s sermons and the Tipitaka. Interestingly, Pali literature extends beyond ethical teachings; it reveals the Buddha’s role as a social reformer who engaged with every stratum of society, including merchants, traders, kings, and queens. Having been born a prince, he understood that economic balance was vital for social stability—a perspective reflected throughout his recorded teachings. Within various Nikāyas and Jātakas, one finds detailed accounts of diverse trades, trade routes, and commercial methods. This paper surveys the economic conditions described in these Nikāyas, noting that ancient cities were vibrant hubs for merchants and traders. This class was often deeply religious; for instance, Anāthapiṇḍika’s donation of the Jetavana monastery—purchased by covering the ground with gold coins—serves as a testament to both economic prosperity and religious devotion. Furthermore, the existence of lavish mansions and gardens owned by the middle class underscores this wealth. By analyzing these texts, this paper examines the social and religious reflections of trade as depicted in Pali literature, specifically focusing on the Nikāyas and Jātaka stories of the Sutta Piṭaka.
Key words: Nikāyas, Jātaka, Socio-religious condition, trade, Pali literature.
Drawing on administrative manuals, normative texts, and archaeological sources, the paper will try to examine the spatial organisation of shops and markets, systems of price control and taxation, and the everyday functioning of urban exchange. It foregrounds merchants and shopkeepers, ranging from petty retailers and artisans engaged in retail trade to wholesale merchants and financiers, as integral components of an emerging urban middle class.
By bringing market structures into direct analytical relationship with mercantile classes, the paper challenges historiographical approaches that privilege elite merchants or overseas trade as the principal drivers of medieval economic life.
The paper thus attempts to re-centre shops, markets, and mercantile groups within the history of medieval Indian urbanism, arguing that the mercantile world was foundational to the making and reproduction of towns and cities, and to the social dynamics of medieval Indian society itself.
The moment cotton was first cultivated at Mehrgarh-the celebrated Neolithic site within the Indus–Saraswati cultural sphere-the foundations of India’s extraordinary textile tradition were irrevocably laid. Archaeological evidence from this region points not merely to early experimentation but to the emergence of a sophisticated textile economy, one deeply integrated with urban planning, craft specialisation, and long-distance exchange networks.
Textile production in the Indian subcontinent was neither episodic nor incidental; it was a continuous, adaptive process refined over millennia. Indian artisans perfected techniques of spinning, weaving, dyeing, and printing, producing cotton fabrics renowned for their fineness, durability, and aesthetic excellence. These textiles soon became commodities of global desire. Archaeological and textual records confirm that as early as the third millennium BCE, Indian cotton fabrics and dyes were exported to Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the eastern Mediterranean. References in Mesopotamian cuneiform texts to imported cotton and Indian dyes testify to the subcontinent’s pivotal role as a major supplier of both luxury and utilitarian textiles.
Within the pre-colonial, pre-industrial world of the Indian Ocean trading network, an unmistakable picture emerges: the ancient world was deeply attuned to the virtues, varieties, and visual language of Indian textiles. Alongside spices, textiles consistently ranked among India’s principal exports, carrying with them the country’s reputation for technical mastery and artistic refinement. Surviving textile fragments and historical records from distant shores narrate the remarkable journeys of Indian cloth, travelling both eastward and westward across seas and cultures.
Indian textiles also functioned as a favoured medium of exchange, particularly in eastern markets. Trade in textiles to Southeast and East Asia is believed to have existed from at least the first century CE. Lightweight yet valuable, cloth from Bengal, Gujarat, and the Coromandel Coast reached Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, China, and Japan. In later centuries, this flourishing textile commerce expanded further to include European markets, profoundly influencing global tastes and economies.
More than mere commodities, Indian textiles served as carriers of aesthetic sensibilities, technological knowledge, and cultural identity. As ambassadors of Indian trade, they facilitated enduring commercial and cultural exchanges, shaping ancient societies and leaving an indelible imprint on the history of global material culture.
Key Words: Trade, Textile, Trade network, Cultural Exchanges, Ambassador, India.
Trade and commerce were integral to the socio-economic fabric of ancient India, serving as catalysts for cultural exchange, urbanization, and artistic expression. There are several examples of the multifaceted representation of trade in ancient Indian art, spanning from the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) to the late medieval period (c. 12th century CE) and even after that. Through an interdisciplinary analysis of archaeological artifacts, sculptural reliefs, numismatic evidence, mural paintings, textiles etc. one can elucidate how artistic mediums documented and celebrated commercial activities, maritime ventures, and cross-cultural interactions.
Ancient Indian art not only mirrored the material realities of trade—including commodities like textiles, spices, gems, and ivory—but also encoded socio-religious values, showcasing the patronage of merchants and the integration of commercial themes into Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain visual narratives. Artistic representations further underscore India’s role in trans regional networks like the Silk Road and Indian Ocean trade, reflecting connections with the Roman Empire, Southeast Asia, and the Persian world.
India’s stretchy coastline on the east, south and west, bordering the Bay of Bengal, the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea has been studded with many flourishing ports and port towns since time immemorial. This vast coastline unveils a civilizational story that transcends time, borders, and even empires. On the basis of archaeological, literary sources and travel accounts of indigenous and foreign travellers a forging link may be established with India and Southeast Asia through commercial, cultural and maritime expansion. Southeast Asia denotes ancient Suvarnadvipa which comprises the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Bali islands. The merchants from India were often accompanied by craftsmen, monks and scholars who left a deep impact on socio-cultural scenarios in Southeast Asian societies.
Buddhism played a pivotal role in exchange of religious thoughts in Southeast Asia. As well as the presence of Shaivite and Vaishnavite elements in temples across Southeast Asia—such as the Prambanan temple in Java or the temple complex at My Son in Vietnam show cultural contact with India. Vis a vis many motifs of Javanese temples are found in the temples of Odisha. Excavations at sites like Manikpatna and Sisupalgarh have unearthed foreign coins, pottery, and other artifacts that attest to long-distance trade. At the same time, Buddhist relics and temple remains at Ratnagiri and Udayagiri show stylistic influences that suggest interaction with Southeast Asian forms. Besides, textiles like batik, Ikat show close affinity of Javanese style.
Thus the present article will concentrate on the study of the voyages of commerce and exploration in trade relations of India and Southeast Asia which evolved over centuries into a rich tapestry of exchange involving language, script, religion, art, and architecture. Although not a "depiction" in the traditional sense, the influence was reciprocal and deeply rooted. Indian art forms were adapted and localized in Southeast Asia, creating a distinct aesthetic that often reflects Indian themes. The repository of the museum and archives of the Asiatic Society, Kolkata will be used for better understanding of this article.
Key Words: Trade and commerce, India and Southeast Asia, art and culture, interconnectedness
History, in Jaina context, cannot be defined separately from the definition of history, which is the reconstruction of the past on the basis of evidence. Actually, we reconstructed history on the basis of sources (both literary and archaeological) available to us, which were never created with the sense of writing the complete history. The present paper discusses the social harmony and the tolerant and assimilative mindset of rulers of Kushana period through mainly the Jaina Inscriptions of Kankali Tila (Mathura) alongwith literary and art-data.
Kushana period was unique in terms of the tolerance and assimilative mindset of rulers although they were alien rulers, who were liberal in religious and art activities, which encourage the traders (Shresthi), leader of traders (Sarthvaha), businessmen and even common men including low profile community of Shravak, Shravika, dancer (Nartak), prostitute (Veshya), sailor (Pratarik), goldsmith (Suvarnakar), ironsmith (Lauhakarmak), barber (Napit) etc. to maintain social harmony and peace.
There are enormous inscriptions on the pedestals of the Jaina images of Tirthankara, Pratima-Sarvatobhadrika, Ayagapata and Sarasvati, which reveal the sense of harmony and peace in the Jaina context. They refer to the names of rulers like Kanishka and Huvishka and invariably provide the date, which is an essential component of history writing.
These inscriptions, besides giving the identifications as Brishbho/Ushabho (Rishabhanath), Arishtanemi (Neminath), Vardhamana/Mahavira, Sarasvato (Sarasvati), Naigmeshi etc., indicate the names of local donors including the foreign women. The names distinctly show that in Jaina society women were contributing more than men in religious and art activities. The female names in the inscriptions are Kshudra, Kumar Mitra, Bodhinandi, Datta, Simhadatta, Gulha, Balahastini, Shiva Mitra, Amohini, Dharmaghosa, Shivayasha, Masigi, Jit Mitra deva, Simhanandika or Vanka, Achala, Jaya, Vijayashri, Sthira while the men’s names are Shuchila, Vishnusena, Nandibala, Gova, Uttradaksha, Lavada, Indrapala, Gottika etc.
This paper examines India’s foreign trade trajectory through a quantitative lens, highlighting the pivotal contribution of the Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence & Statistics (DGCI&S) in compiling, validating, and disseminating trade statistics. From its origins in the late 19th century to its present-day digital mandate, DGCI&S has served as the backbone of India’s commercial intelligence infrastructure. Using historical and contemporary datasets, the study illustrates how India’s export–import (EXIM) profile has diversified—from traditional agricultural commodities to high-value manufacturing and complex global value chain (GVC) participation.
A central theme of the paper is the integration of Indian trade statistics with international comparison frameworks, particularly UN Comtrade, which standardizes global trade through harmonized codes, partner-country data, trade flows, and value-quantity metrics. The synchronisation between DGCI&S and Comtrade enables India to benchmark its performance globally, evaluate bilateral trade asymmetries, and strengthen its reporting obligations to multilateral institutions.
The paper devotes special attention to emerging issues that challenge India’s trade data ecosystem. Key concerns include data discrepancies, demonstrated by recent mismatches in SEZ and customs datasets; technology transition risks, as trade systems migrate from legacy platforms to modern EDI- and API-based frameworks; and classification complexities due to rapid product diversification in electronics, critical minerals, digital goods, and services. Additionally, the proliferation of transshipment hubs, re-routing of global supply chains, and the rise of e-commerce cross-border flows add new layers of difficulty to capturing accurate and timely statistics.
The study also highlights systemic constraints: uneven data reporting across ports, data quality delays, limited resources for advanced analytics, and the need for AI-enabled anomaly detection to address mirror-data gaps with major partners such as China, UAE, Singapore, and the EU. Climate-linked trade (carbon border measures), non-tariff barriers, and sustainability reporting are emerging domains requiring new statistical methodologies. Establishment of a National Institute for Trade Data Analytics for providing guidance to all concerns is the call of the day.